Una carta a Dios[Cuento. Texto completo.]Gregorio López y Fuentes | ||
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Este blog esta hecho principalmente para mis estudiantes de español, pero bienvenidos también todos aquellos que encuentren algo útil aquí. Parte de la información de este blog ha sido extraída de otros sitios de los cuales he colocado la dirección pues no quiero adjudicármelo como propio, pero si no tiene link, significa que es mi autoria.
Una carta a Dios por Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes
Pablo Neruda
¿Quién fue Pablo Neruda?
Virgilio Piñera
¿Quién fue Virgilio Piñera?
El presupuesto de Mario Benedetti
Mario Benedetti
(1920- )
EL PRESUPUESTO
(Montevideanos, 1959)
En nuestra oficina regía el mismo presupuesto desde el año mil novecientos veintitantos, o sea desde una época en que la mayoría de nosotros estábamos luchando con la geografía y con los quebrados. Sin embargo, el jefe se acordaba del acontecimiento y a veces, cuando el trabajo disminuía, se sentaba familiarmente sobre uno de nuestros escritorios, y así, con las piernas colgantes que mostraban después del pantalón unos inmaculados calcetines blancos, nos relataba con su vieja emoción y las quinientas noventa y ocho palabras de costumbre, el lejano y magnífico día en que su Jefe -él era entonces Oficial Primero- le había palmeado el hombro y le había dicho: “Muchacho, tenemos presupuesto nuevo”, con la sonrisa amplia y satisfecha del que ya ha calculado cuántas camisas podrá comprar con el aumento.
Un nuevo presupuesto es la ambición máxima de una oficina pública. Nosotros sabíamos que otras dependencias de personal más numeroso que la nuestra, habían obtenido presupuesto cada dos o tres años. Y las mirábamos desde nuestra pequeña isla administrativa con la misma desesperada resignación con que Robinson veía desfilar los barcos por el horizonte, sabiendo que era tan inútil hacer señales como sentir envidia. Nuestra envidia o nuestras señales hubieran servido de poco, pues ni en los mejores tiempos pasamos de nueve empleados, y era lógico que nadie se preocupara de una oficina así de reducida.
Como sabíamos que nada ni nadie en el mundo mejoraría nuestros gajes, limitábamos nuestra esperanza a una progresiva reducción de las salidas, y, en base a un cooperativismo harto elemental, lo habíamos logrado en buena parte. Yo, por ejemplo, pagaba la yerba; el Auxiliar Primero, el té de la tarde; el Auxiliar Segundo, el azúcar; las tostadas el Oficial Primero, y el Oficial Segundo la manteca. Las dos dactilógrafas y el portero estaban exonerados, pero el Jefe, como ganaba un poco más, pagaba el diario que leíamos todos.
Nuestras diversiones particulares se habían también achicado al mínimo íbamos al cine una vez por mes, teniendo buen cuidado de ver todos difer entes películas, de modo que, relatándolas luego en la Oficina, estuviéramos al tanto de lo que se estrenaba. Habíamos fomentado el culto de juegos de atención tales como las damas y el ajedrez, que costaban poco y mantenían el tiempo sin bostezos. jugábamos de cinco a seis, cuando ya era imposible que llegaran nuevos expedientes, ya que el letrero de la ventanilla advertía que después de las cinco no se recibían “asuntos”. Tantas veces lo habíamos leído que al final no sabíamos quién lo había inventado, ni siquiera qué concepto respondía exactamente a la palabra “asunto”. A veces alguien venía y preguntaba el número de su “asunto”. Nosotros le dábamos el del expediente y el hombre se iba satisfecho. De modo que un “asunto” podía ser, por ejemplo, un expediente.
En realidad, la vida que pasábamos allí no era mala. De, vez en cuando el jefe se creía en la obligación de mostrarnos las ventajas de la administración pública sobre el comercio, y algunos de nosotros pensábamos que ya era un poco tarde para que opinara diferente.
Uno de sus argumentos era la Seguridad. La seguridad de que no nos dejarían cesantes. Para que ello pudiera acontecer, era preciso que se reuniesen los senadores, y nosotros sabíamos que los senadores apenas si se reunían cuando tenían que interpelar a un Ministro. De modo que por ese lado el jefe tenía razón. La Seguridad existía. Claro que también existía la otra seguridad, la de que nunca tendríamos un aumento que nos permitiera comprar un sobretodo al contado. Pero el jefe, que tampoco podía comprarlo, consideraba que no era ése el momento de ponerse a criticar su empleo ni tampoco el nuestro. Y -como siempre tenía razón.
Esa paz ya resuelta y casi definitiva que pesaba en nuestra Oficina, dejándonos conformes con nuestro pequeño destino y un poco torpes debido a nuestra falta de insomnios, se vio un día alterada por la noticia que trajo el Oficial Segundo. Era sobrino de un Oficial Primero del Ministerio y resulta que ese tío -dicho sea sin desprecio y con propiedad- había sabido que allí se hablaba de un presupuesto nuevo para nuestra Oficina. Como en el primer momento no supimos quién o quiénes eran los que hablaban de nuestro presupuesto, sonreímos con la ironía de lujo que reservábamos para algunas ocasiones, como si el Oficial Segundo estuviera un poco loco o como si nosotros pensáramos que él nos tomaba por un poco tontos. Pero cuando nos agregó que, según el tío, el que había hablado de ello había sido el mismo secretario) o sea el alma parens del Ministerio, sentimos de pronto que en nuestras vidas de setenta pesos algo estaba cambiando, como si una mano invisible hubiera apretado al fin aquella de nuestras tuercas que se hallaba floja, como si nos hubiesen sacudido a bofetadas toda la conformidad y toda la resignación.
En mi caso particular, lo primero que se me ocurrió pensar y decir, fue “lapicera fuente”. Hasta ese momento yo no había sabido que quería comprar una lapicera fuente, pero cuando el Oficial Segundo abrió con su noticia ese enorme futuro que apareja toda posibilidad, por mínima que sea, en seguida extraje de no sé qué sótano de mis deseos una lapicera de color negro con capuchón de plata y con mi nombre inscripto. Sabe Dios en qué tiempos se había enraizado en mí.
Vi y oí además como el Auxiliar Primero hablaba de una bicicleta y el jefe contemplaba distraídamente el taco desviado de sus zapatos y una de las dactilógrafas despreciaba cariñosamente su cartera del último lustro. Vi y oí además cómo todos nos pusimos de inmediato a intercambiar nuestros proyectos, sin importarnos realmente nada lo que el otro decía, pero necesitando hallar un escape a tanta contenida e ignorada ilusión. Vi y oí además cómo todos decidimos festejar la buena nueva financiando con el rubro de reservas una excepcional tarde de bizcochos.
Eso —los bizcochos fue el paso primero. Luego siguió el par de zapatos que se compró el jefe. A los zapatos del Jefe, mi lapicera adquirida a pagar en diez cuotas. Y a mi lapicera, el sobretodo del Oficial Segundo, la cartera de la Primera Dactilógrafa, la bicicleta del Auxiliar Primero. Al mes y medio todos estábamos empeñados y en angustia.
El Oficial Segundo había traído más noticias. Primeramente, que el presupuesto estaba a informe de la Secretaría del Ministerio. Después que no. No era en Secretaría. Era en Contaduría. Pero el jefe de Contaduría estaba enfermo y era preciso conocer su opinión. Todos nos preocupábamos por la salud de ese jefe del que sólo sabíamos que se llamaba Eugenio y que tenía a estudio nuestro presupuesto.
Hubiéramos querido obtener hasta un boletín diario de su salud. Pero sólo teníamos derecho a las noticias desalentadoras del tío de nuestro Oficial Segundo. El jefe de Contaduría seguía peor. Vivimos una tristeza tan larga por la enfermedad de ese funcionario, que el día de su muerte sentimos, como los deudos de un asmático grave, una especie de alivio al no tener que preocuparnos más de él. En realidad, nos pusimos egoístamente alegres, porque esto significabala posibilidad de que llenaran la vacante y nombraran otro jefe que estudiara al fin nuestro presupuesto.
A los cuatro meses de la muerte de don Eugenio nombraron otro jefe de Contaduría. Esa tarde suspendimos la partida de ajedrez, el mate y el trámite administrativo. El jefe se puso a tararear un aria de Aida y nosotros nos quedamos —por esto y por todo— tan nerviosos, que tuvimos que salir un rato a mirar las vidrieras. A la vuelta nos esperaba una emoción. El tío había informado que nuestro presupuesto no había estado nunca a estudio de la Contaduría. Había sido un error. En realidad, no había salido de la Secretaría. Esto significaba un considerable oscurecimiento de nuestro panorama. Si el presupuesto a estudio hubiera estado en Contaduría, no nos habríamos alarmado. Después de todo, nosotros sabíamos que hasta el momento no se había estudiado debido a la enfermedad del jefe. Pero si había estado realmente en Secretaría, en la que el Secretario —su jefe supremo— gozaba de perfecta salud, la demora no se debía a nada y podía convertirse en demora sin fin.
Allí comenzó la etapa crítica del desaliento. A primera hora nos mirábamos todos con la interrogante desesperanzado de costumbre. Al principio todavía preguntábamos ¿Saben algo? Luego optamos por decir ¿Y? y terminamos finalmente por hacer la pregunta con las cejas. Nadie sabía nada. Cuando alguien sabía algo, era que el presupuesto todavía estaba a estudio de la Secretaría.
A los ocho meses de la noticia primera, hacía ya dos que mi lapicera no funcionaba. El Auxiliar Primero se había roto una costilla gracias a la bicicleta. Un judío era el actual propietario de los libros que había comprado el Auxiliar Segundo; el reloj del Oficial Primero atrasaba un cuarto de hora por jornada; los zapatos del jefe tenían dos medias suelas (una cosida y otra clavada), y el sobretodo del Oficial Segundo tenía las solapas gastadas y erectas como dos alitas de equivocación.
Una vez supimos que el Ministro había preguntado por el presupuesto. A la semana, informó Secretaría. Nosotros queríamos saber qué decía el informe, pero el tío no pudo averiguarlo porque era “estrictamente confidencial”. Pensamos que eso era sencillamente una estupidez, porque nosotros, a todos aquellos expedientes que traían una tarjeta en el ángulo superior con leyendas tales como “muy urgente”, “trámite preferencial” o “estrictamente reservados”, los tratábamos en igualdad de condiciones que a los otros. Pero por lo visto en el Ministerio no eran del mismo parecer.
Otra vez supimos que el Ministro había hablado del presupuesto con el Secretario. Como a las conversaciones no se les ponía ninguna tarjeta especial, el tío pudo enterarse y enterarnos de que el Ministro estaba de acuerdo. ¿Con qué y con quién estaba de acuerdo? Cuando el tío quiso averiguar esto último, el Ministro ya no estaba de acuerdo. Entonces, sin otra explicación comprendimos que antes había estado de acuerdo con nosotros.
Otra vez supimos que el presupuesto había sido reformado. Lo iban a tratar en la sesión del próximo viernes, pero a los catorce viernes que siguieron a ese próximo, el presupuesto no había sido tratado. Entonces empezamos a vigilar las fechas de las próximas sesiones y cada sábado nos decíamos: “Bueno ahora será hasta el viernes. Veremos qué pasa entonces”. Llegaba el viernes y no pasaba nada. Y el sábado nos decíamos: Bueno, será hasta el viernes. Veremos qué pasa entonces. “ Y no pasaba nada. Y no pasaba nunca nada de nada.
Yo estaba ya demasiado empeñado para permanecer impasible, porque la lapicera me había estropeado el ritmo económico y desde entonces yo no había podido recuperar mi equilibrio. Por eso fue que se me ocurrió que podíamos visitar al Ministro.
Durante varias tardes estuvimos ensayando la entrevista. El Oficial Primero hacía de Ministro, y el jefe, que había sido designado por aclamación para hablar en nombre de todos, le presentaba nuestro reclamo. Cuando estuvimos conformes con el ensayo, pedimos audiencia en el Ministerio y nos la concedieron para el jueves. El jueves dejamos pues en la Oficina a una de las dactilógrafas y al portero, y los demás nos fuimos a conversar con el Ministro. Conversar con el Ministro no es lo mismo que conversar con otra persona. Para conversar con el Ministro hay que esperar dos horas y media y a veces ocurre, como nos pasó precisamente a nosotros, que ni al cabo de esas dos horas y media se puede conversar con el Ministro. Sólo llegamos a presencia del Secretario, quien tomó nota de las palabras del jefe —muy inferiores al peor de los ensayos, en los que nadie tartamudeaba— y volvió con la respuesta del Ministro de que se trataría nuestro presupuesto en la sesión del día siguiente.
Cuando —relativamente satisfechos— salíamos del Ministerio, vimos que un auto se detenía en la puerta y que de él bajaba el Ministro.
Nos pareció un poco extraño que el Secretario nos hubiera traído la respuesta personal del Ministro sin que éste estuviese presente. Pero en realidad nos convenía más confiar un poco y todos asentimos con satisfacción y desahogo cuando el jefe opinó que el Secretario seguramente habría consultado al Ministro por teléfono.
Al otro día, a las cinco de la tarde estábamos bastante nerviosos. Las cinco de la tarde era la hora que nos habían dado para preguntar. Habíamos trabajado muy poco; estábamos demasiado inquietos como para que las cosas nos salieran bien. Nadie decía nada. El jefe ni siquiera tarareaba su aria. Dejamos pasar seis minutos de estricta prudencia. Luego el jefe discó el número que todos sabíamos de memoria, y pidió con el Secretario. La conversación duró muy poco. Entre los varios “Sí”, “Ah, sí”, “Ah, bueno” del jefe, se escuchaba el ronquido indistinto del otro. Cuando el jefe colgó el tubo, todos sabíamos la respuesta. Sólo para confirmarla pusimos atención: “Parece que hoy no tuvieron tiempo. Pero dice el Ministro que el presupuesto será tratado sin falta en la sesión del próximo viernes.
Fuente: https://www.literatura.us/benedetti/presupuesto.html
Checa el link en Amazón
Realismo Mágico
¿Qué es el realismo mágico?
Realismo mágico o una visión multidimensional de la realidad (Biblioteca Cubana) (Spanish Edition): 1 Pasta blanda – 27 abril 2022
Ruben Dario (English)
Biography Ruben Dario
In Spanish, there is poetry before and after Rubén Darío. The Nicaraguan (1867-1916) was the first major poet in the language since the seventeenth century, the end of the Golden Age whose masters included Garcilaso, Saint John of the Cross, Fray Luis, Góngora, Quevedo and Sor Juana. And despite an abundance of great poets in the twentieth century on both sides of the Atlantic--García Lorca, Alberti, Salinas, Cernuda, Neruda, Vallejo, Paz, Palés Matos, Lezama Lima, to name a few--his stature remains unequaled. The poetic revolution led by Darío spread across the Spanish-speaking world and extended to all of literature, not just poetry. He ushered Spanish-language poetry into the modern era by incorporating the aesthetic ideals and modern anxieties of Parnassianism and Symbolism, as Garcilaso had infused Castilian verse with Italianate forms and spirit in the sixteenth century, transforming it forever. Darío and Garcilaso led the two most profound poetic revolutions in Spanish, yet neither is known abroad, except by Hispanists. They have not traveled well, particularly in English-speaking countries, where they are all but unknown.
Darío's case is the most baffling because he is nearly our contemporary, whereas Garcilaso, who lived from 1501 to 1536, can today be safely left on library shelves along with Petrarch, Ronsard and Spenser. Besides, Garcilaso has by now been so thoroughly assimilated into Spanish poetic discourse that it is easy to overlook his presence in the poetry of Neruda and Paz. Darío's innovations, style and even manner are still contemporary, however, as are the polemics that his poetry provoked among other poets, professors and critics. What is more, his influence penetrated all levels of Latin American and Spanish society, where his voice is still audible in the lyrics of popular love songs; the artistic movement that he founded, Modernismo, had a tremendous impact on everything from ornaments to interior design, from furniture to fashion. Darío, more than a Nicaraguan poet or a Latin American poet, was a poet of the Spanish language--and its first literary celebrity, embraced throughout Latin America and Spain as the most original and modern of poetic voices.
Darío published his first major collection of poems, Azul..., in 1888. He was 21 and living in Valparaíso, Chile, where he had moved two years earlier in search of a broader horizon than that offered by Central America. Azul..., a slender book of 134 pages, was to become a turning point in Spanish-language literature, not only for poetry but for prose. Its success is proof of the serendipity at work in literary history. Here was a privately printed book of poetry, written by a virtual unknown, published in a port city that was vibrant and cultured but far from the centers of literary activity in Latin America and Spain: Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Madrid and... Paris. As Walter Benjamin famously said, Paris was the capital of the nineteenth century, and this was no less true for the poets, intellectuals, diplomats and exiles of Latin America's fragmented world, which had great cities but no natural center, as New York was for the United States or Paris itself for the French. True, the first anthology of Latin American poetry, América poética, was published in Valparaíso by the Argentine Juan María Gutiérrez in 1846, but the Chilean port was no Paris--it wasn't even Madrid.
The initial reactions to Darío were hostile. The great thinker and poet Miguel de Unamuno first said that a feather stuck out from under Darío's hat, a derogatory reference to his Indian background, while Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo--the most influential critic and scholar ever in Spanish--stopped his history of Latin American poetry (the first written) in the 1880s, exactly at the point when Darío and Modernismo began to make their mark. A Francophobe, Menéndez y Pelayo frowned upon Darío's love of French poetry and culture. Fortunately, Darío had the audacity to send Azul... to the powerful Spanish critic Juan Valera. Valera wielded his considerable influence as an author, critic and member of the Royal Spanish Academy of the Language to launch the young poet's career with two "letters" about the book, which were printed as prologue in later editions of Azul.... Brilliant and probing, Valera's letters touch upon everything that is relevant about Azul..., and all subsequent commentary on Darío's work is, in some way, a gloss of them. Though also critical of Darío's adoption of French ways, Valera recognized his genius and predicted a bright future for the Nicaraguan--a priceless endorsement by an established personality in the world of Spanish letters.
Another factor that contributed to Darío's sudden celebrity and his itinerant career as ambassador of the new poetry all over the Spanish-speaking world was a new feature of modern life that his poetry reflected: communications. Steam navigation, the transatlantic cable and the proliferation of newspapers--some of them, like Chile's El Mercurio, of the highest quality and influence--disseminated literature with a speed never seen before. And it brought together writers from all corners of the Hispanic world with an ease that was also unprecedented. All of them could meet in Paris and become conscious of belonging to a continental literature that transcended individual countries because of the more capacious and swifter ships propelled by steam and by the increased commerce among Latin American nations and between those nations and the rest of the world. Darío's travels and the circulation of his books owed a great deal to these developments, as did his immersion in French literature, something he shared with Latin American artists and intellectuals then and now. Azul... was published in a small place, but it appeared at a moment when the world was becoming smaller.
Rubén Darío was born in the Nicaraguan town of Metapa, now Ciudad Darío. His parents named him Félix Rubén García Sarmiento, and, as he himself boldly admitted, Indian and African blood coursed through his veins. (He later changed his name to the briefer, euphonious Rubén Darío, incorporating a patronymic that his father's family had used; it also has, of course, classical connotations.)
The possibility of becoming so well read in the periphery of the Spanish-speaking world is due to the uniformity of language and culture imposed on their empire by the Catholic monarchs and their successors as well as by advances in commerce and communications. The Spanish empire, organized as a vast bureaucracy, favored writing and learning to promote and conserve cultural and religious orthodoxy. While the cost was high, the benefits were also considerable, one being that a subject could feel connected through writing to the centers of power and learning, both to the viceroyalties in Mexico and Peru, and to Spain itself. Communications and trade resulting from interest in the region by the modern European imperial powers brought to Latin American ports the latest goods, including books, without the restrictions imposed before independence. Darío began to write and publish verse by the age of 12, but his career took off when he moved down the Pacific coast to Chile, a thriving country with a lively artistic and intellectual elite that immediately recognized and rewarded his talents.
About Sor Juana (English)
About Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
1. Introduction
The seventeenth-century poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz may not for many of you be the most well-known writer on the Introduction to Hispanic Texts course, and perhaps only a few of you will have thought of choosing her as as a writer to work on in supervisions. So, in this lecture, I hope to show you:
· why I think her work is well worth studying in depth
· something of the uniqueness of her poetry
· the relevance of her thinking today, particularly the appropriation of her work that has been made for modern feminism.
DIFFERENCE in the sense of - sexual difference (she forces us to change the way in which we read the cannon of male writers) - linguistic difference (her work is not, as some have claimed, a mere copy of contemporary Spanish styles) - socio-cultural difference (her work is not reducible to European literature and themes)
INDIFFERENCE in the sense of - a feminine strategy of resistance to male appropriation - denial of fixed sexual roles - a telling silence in her work on questions of theology and religion.
2. Context
Before going any further, however, it is necessary to give some sense of a context for Sor Juana's poetry. You can gain a sense of this by watching the film, Yo la peor de todas, made by the feminist Argentine director María Luisa Bemberg (available in the language laboratory; see also the video clip included on this website). This is a fairly accurate dramatization of Octavio Paz's major study Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, o, las trampas de la fe, which remains the fullest account of her life and work to date, and which you should dip into. I can only outline some of the major points here:
Seventeenth-century Mexico, known then as Nueva España, was a highly autocratic society, ruled by viceroys sent from Spain and rotated in practice every seven or eight years.
The arch-bishop held great power, and the Santo Oficio, or Holy Inquisition, was greatly feared (Sor Juana mentions it in a famous letter, saying that she does not wish to get into trouble with it).
The religious climate of Nueva España was much more orthodox than in Spain: Catholicism was a well implanted religion in Spain, but in the Americas it was relatively new.
The colonial state was highly centralized:
the indigenous people were governed by specific laws, and there were special statutes for different ethnic groups -- blacks, mulattoes, indians, mestizos, creoles, and Spaniards
religious orders were governed by specific laws, as were virtually all different social groups
ownership of land was strictly controlled -- much was owned by the Church, while the state was interested in preventing the rise of large, powerful, creole land-owners who might represent a source of antagonism to the rule of Spain.
Mexico City had a population of roughly 100,000, of which 20,000 were Spaniards and creoles, and 80,000 were indigenous, mestizos, and mulattoes.
It was the centre of education, with the University, only open to men, founded in 1551.
It was the seat of the viceregal Court, rivaled in importance only by the court of the Viceroyalty of Perú in Lima.
The Court was the centre of the moral, literary and aesthetic codes and conventions, and it is impossible to understand Sor Juana's poetry without realizing its importance:
Octavio Paz says that, of the three central institutions of the country -- the University, the Church, and the Court -- the Court represented an aesthetic and vital way of life, a "dramatic ballet whose characters were the human passions, from the sensual to the ambitious, dancing to a strict yet elegant geometry" (in Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, o, las trampas de la fe).
One of the major themes of Sor Juana's work is knowledge, and in particular the right of women to have access to learning. In the context of seventeenth-century New Spain, however, knowledge is a dangerous commodity and one that is carefully controlled by the religious hierarchy, rigorously policed by the Holy Inquisition. Scientific knowledge poses a threat to the basis of religious power, as does any interpretation of Scripture that runs counter to the prevailing orthodoxy. In the hands of a woman, any claim to knowledge is triply suspect because access to knowledge of the "Divine Order" (whether scientific or theological) is strictly mediated through a patriarchal hierarchy of men. It is hardly surprising, then, to find that Sor Juana's meditations on knowledge are peppered throughout her work with silence, hermeticism, and contradiction.
The Court, in which Sor Juana spent four years of her adolescence, was the point of contact with Europe and European aristocratic culture; the Church was the controller and censor of knowledge and culture as ideological instruments, and was at times in conflict with the more liberal atmosphere of the Court. Sor Juana's work negotiates a precarious feminine space between these competing institutions. For the culture they controlled was almost entirely a masculine culture. Its writers were men and its readers were men. The doors of the educational institutions were entirely locked for women. This is why it is so extraordinary that the greatest writer to emerge from Nueva España, the first great poet of Spanish America, should have been a woman.
4. Playing with form
To fully understand Sor Juana's work, it is necessary to understand something of the literary concerns of her time, and the way in which she plays with those concerns. Some of the main terms associated with the literature of Sor Juana's time are:
Gongorismo
Culteranismo
The Baroque
Gongorismo is a literary style named after the famous Golden Age Spanish poet Luis de Góngora. Sor Juana very much admired his work, and her great poem "Primero sueño" is in some senses a homage to Góngora's "Soledad primera".
Culteranismo is virtually synonymous with gongorismo: the style involves extreme complexity of imagery and metaphor, with neologisms and archaisms. In many ways it is a feast of language, an excess of the signifier over the signified, and it is one aspect of ...
The Baroque: this term is widely used to describe the music and literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and denotes a style in which an exuberance of detail represents a celebration of the signifying material of the work of art, be it wood, stone, paint, word, or sound.
Baroque art is obsessed with form to the extent that form itself can often become the content, the raison d'être, of the work of art
the wealth of detail and decoration become concerns in themselves, appear for their own sake rather than being motivated by the need to get a message across
Baroque poetry does not just employ metaphors of things, but instead metaphors of metaphors, or even metaphors of metaphors of metaphors
poems written in this style, such as those of Góngora and Sor Juana, do not just use tropes, but instead they trope their own troping activity (an ugly phrase, meaning simply that the very activity of using tropes and figures often becomes the subject of the art form, revelling in the excess of signifier over signified)
Baroque poetry delights in the rhythm and sound of words, in their materiality or palpability (the sense that you can almost feel or touch them)
modern theorists have defined this highlighting of the materiality of signs and sounds as one of the most basic aspects of all poetry -- the twentieth-century linguist Roman Jakobson defined poetry in this way when he wrote that "the poetic function promotes the palpability of signs".
It should now be possible to use some of these ideas in our discussion of Sor Juana's poems and their manipulation of literary form.
Poem 61 "Que pinta la proporción hermosa de la Excelentísima Señora condesa de Paredes" provides a very good example of a number of these concerns. The poem has a distinctive formal feature: it is written entirely in lines that commence with esdrújulas. These are words which are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable (three syllables from the end), and they are a relatively rare word form in Spanish (the technical word for them in English is "proparoxytone"). Examples are círculo, pólvora, fórmula, sílaba, but let's look at how Sor Juana uses them (these are the first four stanzas of an eighteen-stanza poem -- do not worry about the complex meaning of the words at this stage, just read it for its sound and let the images wash over you):
61
Pinta la proporción hermosa de la Excelentísima señora condesa de Paredes [. . .]
Lámina sirva el cielo al retrato, Lísida, de su angélica forma: cálamos forme el sol de sus luces; sílabas las estrellas compongan. Cárceles tu madeja fabrica: Dédalo que sutilmente forma vínculos de dorados Ofires, Tíbares de prisiones gustosas. Hécate, no triforme, mas llena, pródiga de candores asoma; trémula no en tu frente se oculta, fúlgida su esplendor desemboza. Círculo dividido en dos arcos, pérsica forman lid belicosa; áspides que por flechas disparan, víboras de halagüeña ponzoña.
[. . .]
The poem was probably written as a tour de force, a piece of verbal pyrotechnics designed to elicit the response "¡Vaya inteligencia!", and indeed it is extremely clever. Apart from the esdrújula form, clearly delighting in the rhythm and sounds of the words for their own sake, the poem sets up, in true Baroque style, a series of more and more elaborate images, similes, and metaphors, to describe the beautiful Lísida (Lysis), whose portrait is supposedly being "painted" by these lines. Many of these images push the bounds of similarity and comparison, threatening to swamp the "portrait" with improbable images. Many of the images are, indeed, comments on the poem's image-making process (its troping activity), and this time let's read with the emphasis on the meaning of the images (look at the translation if you need help):
Lámina sirva el cielo al retrato, Lísida, de su angélica forma: cálamos forme el sol de sus luces; sílabas las estrellas compongan. Cárceles tu madeja fabrica: Dédalo que sutilmente forma vínculos de dorados Ofires, Tíbares de prisiones gustosas. [. . .] Cátedras del abril, tus mejillas, clásicas dan a mayo, estudiosas: métodos a jazmines nevados, fórmula rubicunda a las rosas. Lágrimas del aurora congela, búcaro de fragancias, tu boca: rúbrica con carmines escrita, cláusula de coral y de aljófar.
May Heaven serve as plate for the engraving portraying, Lysis, your angelic figure; may the sun turn its beams into quills, may all the stars compose their syllables. Your skein of locks is as a prison-house, a Cretan labyrinth that twists and curls in webbings of golden Ophirs, in Tibbars of fair prison-cells. [. . .] Your cheeks are April's lecture halls, with classic lessons to impart to May: recipes for making jasmine snowy, formulas for redness in the rose. In your mouth Aurora's chill tears are kept in a many-scented vase; its rubric is written in carmine, its clause penned in coral and pearl.
Translated by Alan Trueblood
Just looking at the vocabulary of the poem, there are many words to do with form, method, style, writing -- some eighteen in all (e.g., retrato, forma, cálamos [=quills], sílabas, compongan, triforme, transforma, fórmula, cláusula, etc.). These suggest that the poem is as much about the act of portraying Lysis as it is about the countess herself.
Perhaps even more interesting than this emphasis on form is the imagery of labyrinths and prisons that runs throughout the poem. Words associated with prison and fixing are: cárceles, dédalo (labyrinth), prisiones, confinantes, congela, aprisiona, Tántalo (Tantalus, imprisoned in Hades), clausura. It is as if the very attempt to fix the image of Lysis in words represented a kind of imprisonment, with the beloved caught both in the labyrinths of poetical language and in the prisonhouse of desire.
While I have looked at this poem in terms of its play with form, issues of gender are also subtly hinted at. Addressing the beloved as Lísida (Lysis) clearly places the poem within the rhetorical conventions of Golden Age love poetry, but those conventions now threaten to become a subtle prison. It is the woman who is trapped within an incarcerating linguistic system, fixed and represented, but somehow lost behind the elaborate symbolic system. Moreover, the lines which absurdly compare the beloved's cheeks with a University Classics lesson are not just rhetorical play: Sor Juana was acutely aware that women were excluded from the lecture halls of the University (she declared in her famous letter that from an early age she had been aware of this as an injustice). To force the comparison between female beauty and the seats of learning from which women were excluded is to create a jarring image which must call into question the conventional assignments of femininity and aesthetics, masculinity and knowledge, as well as call into question the very modes of representation that depend on such a system.
Poem 126 is a simpler, but very intense, version of the ideas presented in the previous poem:
126 En un anillo retrató a la señora condesa de Paredes; dice por qué
Este retrato que ha hecho copiar mi cariño ufano, es sobrescribir la mano lo que tiene dentro el pecho: que, como éste viene estrecho a tan alta perfección, brota fuera la afición; y en el índice la emplea, para que con verdad sea índice del corazón.
Note the ambiguity of the word sobrescribir here: the poem and/or portrait (for the poem claims to be a miniature painting on a ring, of the type that lovers might have sent to each other when separated by long distances) is an over-writing, a writing in excess, which threatens at the same time to overwrite or expunge that which it would express -- her affection and love. The theme of this poem clearly illustrates the baroque idea of excess -- here writing or painting as an excess of the signifier, an overflow which does not 'fit' the body.
You should now be able to do for yourselves similar analyses for poems 127, 102, and 195.
You Foolish Men
"The Feather Pillow" by Horacio Quiroga
Anthology"The Feather Pillow" by Horacio Quiroga
Her entire honeymoon gave her hot and cold shivers. A blond, angelic, and timid young girl, the childhood fancies she had dreamed about being a bride had been chilled by her husband's rough character. She loved him very much, nonetheless, although sometimes she gave a light shudder when, as they returned home through the streets together at night, she cast furtive glances at the impressive stature of her Jordan, who had been silent for an hour. He, for his part, loved her profoundly but never let it be seen.
For three months - they had been married in April - they lived in a special kind of bliss. Doubtless she would have wished less severity in the rigorous sky of love, more expansive and less cautious tenderness, but her husband's impassive manner always restrained her.
The house in which they lived influenced her chills and shuddering to no small degree. The whiteness of the silent patio - friezes, columns, and marble statues - produced the wintry impression of an enchanted palace. Inside, the glacial brilliance of stucco, the completely bare walls, affirmed the sensation of unpleasant coldness. As one crossed from one room to another, the echo of his steps reverberated throughout the house, as if long abandonment had sensitized its resonance.
Alicia passed the autumn in this strange love nest. She had determined, however, to cast a veil over her former dreams and live like a sleeping beauty in the hostile house, trying not to think about anything till her husband arrived each evening.
It is not strange that she grew thin. She had a light attack of influenza that dragged on insidiously for days and days: after that Alicia's health never returned. Finally one afternoon she was able to go into the garden, supported on her husband's arm. She looked around listlessly. Suddenly Jordan, with deep tenderness, ran his hand very slowly over her head, and Alicia instantly burst into sobs, throwing her arms around his neck. For a long time she cried out all the fears she had kept silent, redoubling her weeping at Jordan's slightest caress. Then her sobs subsided, and she stood a long while, her face hidden in the hollow of his neck, not moving or speaking a word.
This was the last day Alicia was well enough to be up. The following day she awakened feeling faint. Jordan's doctor examined her with minute attention, prescribing calm and absolute rest.
"I don't know," he said to Jordan at the street door. "She has a great weakness that I am unable to explain. And with no vomiting, nothing . . . if she wakes tomorrow as she did today, call me at once."
When she awakened the following day, Alicia was worse. There was a consultation. It was agreed there was an anemia of incredible progression, completely inexplicable. Alicia had no more fainting spells but she was visibly moving towards death. The lights were lighted all day long in her bedroom, and there was complete silence. Hours went by without the slightest sound. Alicia dozed. Jordan virtually lived in the drawing-room, which was also always lighted. With tireless persistence he paced ceaselessly from one end of the room to the other. The carpet swallowed his steps. At times he entered the bedroom and continued his silent pacing back and forth alongside the bed, stopping for an instant at each end to regard his wife.
Suddenly Alicia began to have hallucinations, vague images, at first seeming to float in the air, then descending to floor level. Her eyes excessively wide, she stared continuously at the carpet on either side of the head of her bed. One night she suddenly focused on one spot. Then she opened her mouth to scream, and pearls of sweat suddenly beaded her nose and lips.
"Jordan! Jordan!" she clamoured, rigid with fright, still staring at the carpet; she looked at him once again; and after a long moment of stupefied confrontation she regained her senses. She smiled and took her husband's hand in hers, caressing it, trembling, for half an hour.
Among her most persistent hallucinations was that of an anthropoid poised on his fingertips on the carpet, staring at her.
The doctors returned, but to no avail. They saw before them a diminishing life, a life bleeding away day by day, hour by hour, absolutely without their knowing why. During the last consultation Alicia lay in a stupor while they took her pulse, passing her inert wrist from one to another. They observed her a long time in silence and then moved into the dining room.
"Phew . . ." The discouraged chief physician shrugged his shoulders. "It's an inexplicable case. There is little we can do . . ."
"That's my last hope," Jordan groaned. And he staggered blindly against the table.
Alicia's life was fading away in the subdilirium of anemia, a delirium which grew worse throughout the evening hours but which let up somewhat after dawn. The illness never worsened during the daytime, but each morning she awakened pale as death, almost in a swoon. It seemed only at night that her life drained out of her in new waves of blood. Always when she awakened she had the sensation of lying collapsed in the bed with a million pound weight on top of her. Following the third day of this relapse she left her bed again. She could scarcely move her head. She did not want her bed to be touched, not even to have her bedcovers arranged. Her crepuscular terrors advanced now in the form of monsters that dragged themselves toward the bed and laboriously climbed upon the bedspread.
Then she lost consciousness. The final two days she raved ceaselessly in a weak voice. The lights funereally illuminated the bedroom and drawing room. In the deathly silence of the house the only sound was the monotonous delirium from the bedroom and the dull echoes of Jordan's eternal pacing.
Finally, Alicia died. The servant, when she came in afterward to strip the now empty bed, stared wonderingly for a moment at the pillow.
"Sir!" she called to Jordan in a low voice. "There are stains on the pillow that look like blood."
Jordan approached rapidly and bent over the pillow. Truly, on the case, on both sides of the hollow left by Alicia's head, were two small dark spots.
"They look like punctures," the servant murmured after a moment of motionless observation.
"Hold it up to the light," Jordan told her.
The servant raised the pillow but immediately dropped it and stood staring at it, livid and trembling. Without knowing why, Jordan felt the hair rise on the back of his neck.
"What is it?" he murmured in a hoarse voice.
"It's very heavy," the servant whispered, still trembling
Jordan picked it up; it was extraordinarily heavy. He carried it out of the room, and on the dining room table he ripped open the case and the ticking with a slash. The top feathers floated away, and the servant, her mouth opened wide, gave a scream of horror and covered her face with clenched fists: in the bottom of the pillow case, among the feathers, slowly moving its hairy legs, was a monstrous animal, a living, viscous ball. It was so swollen one could barely make out its mouth.
Night after night, since Alicia had taken to her bed, this abomination had stealthily applied its mouth - its proboscis one might better say - to the girl's temples, sucking her blood. The puncture was scarcely perceptible. The daily plumping of the pillow had doubtlessly at first impeded its progress, but as soon as the girl could no longer move, the suction became vertiginous. In five days, in five nights, the monster had drained Alicia's life away.
These parasites of feathered creatures, diminutive in their habitual environment, reach enormous proportions under certain conditions. Human blood seems particularly favourable to them, and it is not rare to encounter them in feather pillows.